One of Turkey's clear strengths is that it can build on a long history of adult education since 1920 when literacy campaigns and 'night courses' were introduced due to the adoption of a new alphabet (with Latin notation replacing the Arabic system). The country can also rely on institutional structures that were built relatively early in the country's history and have since been constantly developed. People's Houses, a type of community centres which replaced the religiously oriented non-formal education centres, existed from the 1930s on, before being renamed Public Education Centres (PECs) in the 1950s. The building of these centres has expanded over years and there are now more than 1 000 centres all over the country, providing a cornerstone of the current adult learning infrastructure and catering for more than 2 million participants a year.

The Turkish system has some similarities with those of other European countries, such as Germany and Denmark. PECs offer courses in various categories, such as vocational training and personal development, information and computer technologies, foreign languages, visual and performing arts, music, handicrafts and sports. For years, one of the shortcomings of this system has been that the majority of educators in PECs are formal school teachers without training in adult learning.

Further to the well-established Public Education Centres (in Turkish 'Halk Egitimi Merkezleri'), which come under the umbrella of the MoNE, there are two other major providers of adult learning: universities, which operate Lifelong Education Centres, and municipalities, offering Municipal Education Courses. While the PECs and Municipal Education Courses predominantly offer vocational and technical courses aiming to give people marketable skills and prepare them for the labour market, the adult education courses provided by the universities exhibit a much wider variety of subjects and contents. The latter, however, are less well-suited to reach out to vulnerable people and communities, and participants tend to come from the middle classes and have a fairly high level of education (Erdogan et al., 2017). Some previous studies in Turkey have shown that young adults (aged 23–44) benefit most from adult education, and that the percentages of low-literate and literate individuals and five-year elementary school graduates participating in adult education were less than the respective percentages in the whole population (Miser et al., 2013).

The General Directorate of Lifelong Learning is preparing vocational and technical course programmes suitable for all age groups to be applied in non-formal education institutions. In order to give individuals basic skills and to improve their existing knowledge and aptitude, new programmes are being devised in line with the needs of individuals, sectors and other public institutions. Current course programmes are being updated and designed in a modular manner to allow flexibility and the completion of different course modules at different times. Updating started after the Non-Formal Educational Framework for Course Programmes entered into force in 2016.

A high number of courses (nearly 340 000 in 2017) are offered annually via distance learning, and the total enrolment in courses run by education institutions within the General Directorate of Lifelong Learning stands at around 7 million students per year. In 2017, nearly 43% of the courses were subjected to vocational and technical subjects and 47% of learners had enrolled in this type of programme. Women benefit more from adult learning courses than men, accounting for approximately 58% of the total participants (MoNE, 2019a).

As part of their active labour market policies, the public employment services of Turkey (ISKUR) provided courses and programmes for about half a million people in 2018, mainly targeted at the unemployed, jobseekers and, increasingly, refugees.

Turkey is very committed to, and has made substantial progress in, developing and implementing a system of validation of non-formal and informal learning. Vocational Qualification Certificates, which are issued as a result of non-formal and informal learning or recognition of prior learning, are considered valid and reliable by employers, workers and other stakeholders. As of January 2019, Vocational Qualification Certificates had been issued for nearly half a million people (483 761) in 283 different professions by 187 accredited certification bodies. The Regulation on Lifelong Learning Institutions (2018) defines prior learning as 'learning outcomes acquired by an individual through formal, lifelong learning and/or informal learning' and provides measurement and assessment standards for the recognition of prior learning. Those who successfully complete the literacy and vocational courses organised by lifelong learning institutions are assessed within the scope of recognition of prior learning. For Syrian refugees, the recognition of competences acquired earlier but not documented, as well as skills gained through VET or working in Turkey, has become increasingly important, although the numbers of those who have benefitted from this system so far still seem to be low.

Despite not being new to Turkey, the concept of lifelong learning has gained momentum in the last 15 years, starting with the first LLL policy paper (2006) in the context of an EU project.[11] Lifelong learning is defined as all learning activities undertaken throughout life with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competencies within a personal, civic, social and/or employment context. It encompasses formal, non-formal and informal learning and there are no restrictions in terms of age, socio-economic status or educational level. Learning is lifelong and life-wide, as it not only takes place in schools, but also in other areas of life, for example at work and in civic, political, cultural and recreational life.
The transformation of adult education in Turkey from public education to lifelong learning did not remain uncontested, in particular some part of academia blamed global neoliberal policies and practices for having radically influenced educational processes. While some authors claim that LLL has long been a familiar concept in Turkish culture (Gulmez et al, 2015), others assert that education has turned into a commodity and a tool of economic policy rather than a right for citizens at a time of capital accumulation crisis. Such critics also hold that the concept of 'public education' has become obsolete in Turkey, and refers to something that happened in the past that is remembered with nostalgia, while education for adults has begun to be defined in line with market demands and become more individualistic (Yildiz, 2012).

Certainly in the last decade, lifelong learning has become a widely used term in Turkey (Kayman et al., 2012), often synonymous with adult education or adult learning, and the understanding is growing that formal education is not sufficient to impart the abilities, skills and knowledge necessary to cope with all the situations encountered in life (Gülmez et al., 2015). The obstacles that impede the development of LLL in Turkey may be financial, workplace or family barriers, as well as access and personal difficulties (Titrek, 2013). Some of these impediments were confirmed by the Adult Education Survey 2016 which highlighted the absence of a perceived need (with skills corresponding to the current needs of company), high costs and recruitment strategies the main factors behind non-participation in education and training.

Encouraged by the EU, a National Lifelong Learning Strategy was implemented in the period 2009–2013, and, as a follow-up, the LLL Strategy 2014–2018 aimed to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the Turkish lifelong learning system. With its 29 measures, the latter aimed to foster a LLL culture in society, along with a wider awareness of its importance, and to increase access to LLL, including through the creation of a lifelong guidance and counselling system. A final report on the implementation of this latest strategy is currently being prepared, and shows some promising but also mixed results. A more targeted impact analysis may shed further light on the progress achieved in various fields, as well as on the key success factors and the challenges ahead.

The most recent education policy document ('Turkey's Education Vision 2023), adopted at the end of 2018, outlines an approach to education that unites democracy and the economy and which highlights four core elements of this vision, namely students, parents, teachers and schools. It aims to 'raise science-loving, skilled, and ethical individuals who take an interest in culture and are willing to use present and future skills for the well-being of humanity' (MoNE, 2019b).

The vision document dedicates only a short section (two pages out of 130) to LLL, which raises the question of whether LLL is regarded as a real priority in the forthcoming years compared to the other 17 areas of intervention outlined in this new strategy. The LLL section argues that the demand for learning exceeds the capacities of formal education institutions and that restructuring the concept of LLL and making it more socially prevalent (as a concept, structure, process and system) has become more important. Planned activities focus on raising awareness of, and enabling adults to acquire, competencies in 21st-century skills, including those required for addressing social issues and undertaking individual and vocational development. The goal is to increase both the quality of and access to LLL programmes. A number of recurrent issues from previous strategies appear among the nine key actions, such as awareness raising, establishing a National LLL Monitoring System, and including data on institutions operating in the field of LLL. It is also reiterated that distance-learning technologies will be used to reach out to different target groups, thus expanding access to learning.

The awareness raising actions highlight different target groups, such as community awareness of the LLL process; awareness of 21st-century skills; awareness-raising training in combating violence against children and women; and awareness training sessions for addressing all types of addiction across all segments of society, particularly children and young people.

Other actions target the updating of (diploma) curricula for citizens who fall outside of the formal education system due to their age (e.g. simplifying curricula, updating and diversifying LLL programmes for vocational, social and cultural skills). Skills training for 21st-century needs is further planned in multiple literacies (digital, financial, health, ecological, and social media among them).

In terms of LLL, this document reads more like an action plan than a long-term vision. While in line with the overall European vision on future education and training systems, namely the dual objectives of social inclusion and economic development, it misses out some other dimensions – for example, highlighting, as other core elements, the changing world of work and the role of companies in LLL, or striving for excellence and quality assurance in LLL. Nonetheless, the new Education Vision has ambitious plans to reach its goals in a relatively short time period of four years.

Turkey needs a longer-term vision and strategy for adult learning which is also much more prominently positioned within a wider LLL strategy and the Education Vision 2023. The current vision of LLL falls too short, and although pragmatic in its approach, its actions still need to be fully fleshed out with specific targets and measures. It should be complemented by actions that look beyond the educational sphere to forge closer links with the business world and encompass the emerging skills requirements posed by digitalisation and automation. There is an apparent need for stronger alignment with the objectives set by the European Agenda for Adult Learning (EAAL) and the EU Upskilling Pathways policy, the latter calling for a three-step approach: assessing skills; providing adults with tailored training; and offering adults the choice of having their new skills validated and recognised.

To support the development of a longer-term strategy for adult learning in Turkey, a comprehensive and holistic review of adult learning policies and practices should be carried out. This could then address the information and data gaps that need to be closed, while a joint review under the leadership of the MoNE and involving other ministries as well as public and private stakeholders, could reveal the main bottlenecks hindering further development and identify the priority interventions required. More specifically, such a review could identify the areas where there is insufficient provision, for example: education and training for adults with low levels of skills or qualifications, refugees and migrants; female entrepreneurship; environmental awareness; and democratic participation and human rights.

Although data on the overall public funding of adult learning compared to other segments of education (e.g. early childhood, higher education, VET), or the trends in this process over time, do not exist or was not made available, it seems that adult learning is still the 'Cinderella' of LLL, including in terms of funding, given the low participation rate. The current financing of adult learning and funding schemes should be revisited and the overall education budget gradually rebalanced in favour of adult learning. Even within the EU Erasmus programme for Turkey, the budget allocation for adult learning is by far the lowest in relation to other areas, and was considered inadequate, as a recent evaluation report stated (MoEUA, 2017).

The implementation of lifelong learning and adult learning policies necessitates multi-dimensional cooperation and coordination. Or, as one Turkish researcher stressed, 'Just one organisation would not be enough for implementing LLL … it requires support from the state, media and local authorities' (Titrek 2013). Cooperation and coordination are important factors in the development of adult learning. They are needed both within organisations (e.g. the MoNE) and among them (e.g. between other ministries, providers and employer organisations, and between PECs and LLL Centres in universities). Effective coordination also means forging coherent links between various strategies and action plans (e.g. SME and industry strategies, the national science and technology strategy). The current role of the National LLL Council and of the National Adult Learning Coordinator in relation to the European Agenda for Adult Learning should be reviewed in terms of its functions and potential for the future.

There are several recurrent issues that have featured in previous policies and strategies, and which surfaced repeatedly in follow-up policies, for example the collection and use of data and establishing a monitoring and evaluation system (already in the 2006 policy paper) or a lifelong guidance system. It appears that some of these were not fully dealt with in previous reforms and therefore should be addressed more systematically and vigorously now. The UNESCO (2015) monitoring results on Turkey revealed that the country does not yet have an official definition of Adult Learning and Education. A recent TAIEX event concluded that tracking systems are needed to follow up adults who have undergone education and training. A systematic and regular identification of sectoral needs should also be carried out to inform demand-driven training and feedback mechanisms to monitor the effects of training.

The LLL section of the Vision 2023 document misses an opportunity in failing to refer to the need for providing guidance services to adults, although a special section in the document is dedicated to the establishment of a career guidance system which allows young people (from early childhood to the end of secondary education) to learn about professions and to consider career choices. However, nowadays and looking ahead to increasingly uncertain times, educational, training and employment choices are no longer made once in a lifetime. People have to face several critical transitions over the life course, and these are becoming more frequent, disruptive, complex and less predictable. Turkey's future career guidance system should include adult support services, especially for those most in need, including women who are not involved in education or the labour market, refugees and migrants, and other vulnerable groups.

In 2016, major breakthrough occurred when apprenticeships were included as part of compulsory education in Turkey in a bid to attract more young people onto this VET pathway. As a result, Vocational Education Centres (VECs), which deliver the theoretical aspect of apprenticeships, also fell within the scope of compulsory education. Before this, apprenticeships and VECs were considered non-formal VET. In addition, responsibility for this pathway moved from the DG LLL to the DG VET in 2017.

This new policy had an immediate effect in 2017, as can be seen in Table 6 below.

Table 6: Number of apprentices in Turkey (2012–2018)

Source: MoNE (2019c).

In 2017 and 2018 the number of apprenticeships increased substantially – by nearly 70% – reaching a peak of over 130 000 in 2017 after a historic low in 2016 (around 74 000). However, in 2018 a drop of 10% occurred, which may indicate problems with the sustainability of this reform. However, there needs to be a full analysis of the possible causes in order to further raise the attractiveness of apprenticeships for learners, as well as to motivate employers to offer apprenticeship places. Current numbers are still far below those seen 10–15 years ago (around 200 000 apprentices in total each year), even though the potential of the steadily growing Turkish economy to offer such training places must be much higher. Also, the number of refugees involved in apprenticeships remains very low (around 1 300 in 2019). There seem to be very recent plans to expand the network of Vocational Training Centres (VTCs) for apprentices and to increase the share and investment of the private sector in VET (Ozer, 2019).

Turkey has made significant progress in apprenticeship, and is an active member of the European Alliance for Apprenticeships (EAfA). All VET students have to undergo an obligatory traineeship in the last year of schooling which is organised in an alternating fashion, similar to dual education (three days in a company and two days in school in the last grade). A 2018 survey of more than 5 000 companies, 10 000 VET teachers and 30 000 VET students revealed a number of quality issues which are being addressed by the MoNE (ETF, 2019b).

The various kinds of VET schools have been reduced to one type (with the title 'Vocational and Technical Anatolian High School'), while at the same time specialisation has been increased via 20 thematic VET schools (e.g. focusing on renewable energy technologies) in 13 provinces. The DG VET, with the support of provincial directorates and provincial VET and Employment Councils, closed 446 VET programmes and opened or merged 226 others in 3 588 schools in 81 provinces (MoNE 2019a).

As of 2017, due to various legal amendments, the right of VET graduates to enrol in higher education institutions without taking examinations was revoked due to a strong tendency for VET students to continue in higher education and not enter the labour market. This had an immediate and drastic effect on the number of new entries to higher education, with the potential result of increasing the skills supply to the labour market through vocational qualifications. While in 2015 nearly half of all VET graduates went on to higher education, this number dropped to slightly more than a quarter in 2017 (see Table 7 below). Most of the 28.4% of VET graduates who were successful in the Higher Education Institutions Exam and became eligible for a place at a higher education institution were entitled to enrol in two-year associate degree schools, while a minority achieved a score that allowed them to take up four-year higher education, according to data from the Council of Higher Education (MoNE, 2019a).

Table 7: Rate of placement of VET graduates in tertiary/higher education institutions (%)

Source: MoNE (2019a).

Although this policy has evidently been successful in the short term, it may have negative side-effects and repercussions in relation to the mid- and long-term image of VET. The permeability of VET to higher levels of education and training is generally a key pillar of its attractiveness in many countries.

A variety of measures have been implemented to tackle the decreasing demand for VET and to improve its attractiveness. The effects of these remain to be seen. To raise the status of VET certificates, all graduates are awarded the title of 'technician' and those from four-year VET schools are awarded a certificate equivalent to the Mastership document, entitling them to open their own business to practise their profession. The Organisation for Small and Medium Industry Development (KOSGEB), in cooperation with the MoNE, introduced a TL50 000 grant and a TL100 000 interest-free loan for vocational education graduates who start their own business.

In the exam for transition from VET to post-secondary VET, additional points are given to graduates who wish to study in their field. Graduates from VECs are given a journeyman certificate after 11th grade and a Mastership certificate upon successful completion of 12th grade. Moreover, the age limit for admission to Mastership education (apprenticeship has been abolished[16] It is now considered sufficient to have graduated from an eight-year primary school or from a junior secondary school. Iindividuals over the age of 18 who have signed a contract with an employer can remain enrolled throughout the year. Unlike other forms of education, a student enrolled in a Vocational Education Centre will not be dismissed from school if he/she marries (MoNE, 2019a).
. Legal amendments in 2017 now allow students of VECs to enrol in Open High Schools/Open Vocational High Schools.

As of 2017, a significant financial incentive was introduced to foster work-based learning. The state will contribute an amount equal to one third of the 30% of the minimum wage payable to VET students by enterprises during the period of skills training (traineeship, apprenticeship). If the enterprise has fewer than 20 employees, the contribution rises to two-thirds of the 30%. In the years 2017 and 2018 state incentives were paid to enterprises to cover a total of 4.2 million students. In addition, a series of awareness-raising activities were launched, especially regarding apprenticeship and entrepreneurship,

The scope of incentives for private VET schools (introduced in 2012/13) was expanded beyond Organised Industrial Zones (OIZs) to schools outside these areas, and the number of occupational fields from 10 to more than 20. In 2018/19, government incentives were offered to private VET schools in OIZs in 20 fields and in 26 fields for such schools outside these areas.

The Turkish culture of signing protocols with various bodies has been reinforced. The number of cooperation protocols signed between Ministries, with business organisations and other stakeholders in VET has reached around 100, with an annual increase of 20 protocols signed in 2017 and 2018. Such protocols generally relate to scholarships, internships and training places, the employment of graduates, teacher training, joint studies or research, pilot projects and programme development, with some of them periodically renegotiated. For example, in the field of machine technology the milling branch was added as of the 2018/19 school year, new courses related to the defence industry in the field of electronics are being considered, and efforts to develop a curriculum related to the field of nuclear energy are in progress (MoNE, 2019c).

For target groups that require a special policy (e.g. people with disabilities, children of nomadic families, ex-convicts), mainstreaming as a form of inclusive education is being promoted, which includes an Individualised Education Programme (IEP). The proportion of mainstreaming students attending formal VET or secondary schools in 2017/18 was 90% in rural areas and 80% in urban areas. Scholarships and free-of-charge boarding are provided for disadvantaged students at all levels.

As mentioned in section 3.1, at the end of 2018 the Turkish Government adopted an ambitious new vision for education covering the period 2019–2023. This vision pays much more attention to VET than to LLL and establishes seven priority areas with respective actions. The initial goals are targeted at enhancing the perceived value of VET and improving guidance and counselling in this sector. Others focus on strengthening education-employment-production linkages in VET and developing the learning environment and human resources. The MoNE's aim is to develop a new generation of flexible and modular curricula, and two very specific goals are related to the training of staff members to meet the needs of businesses investing abroad and the development of the human resources required by the local and national defence industry (MoNE, 2019b. Some goals are overambitious given the short time frame, and links to LLL are missing or very weak. However, it should be acknowledged that the MoNE attributes a high priority to VET within the new education vision.

One of the most important measures with regard to improving the skills mismatch in the country relates to career guidance. Earlier initiatives and projects on career guidance have been relatively unsuccessful or have not yet yielded results (e.g. the Preference Advisory Commissions that were set up to inform and help students on programmes and placements). The new policy therefore aims to establish a comprehensive career guidance system at all educational levels to help students to choose professions in line with their skills, interests and abilities. Students will be enabled to create a career profile, and counsellors will receive a new task and function structure, which should also address the questions raised by the needs of refugees. Tools will be developed to measure features such as interest, talent or career belief.

Linked to this is the plan to move students' subject choices from the 10th to the 9th grade (one year earlier than before). This may allow students to make better decisions with regard to their vocational pathway (field of study and later specialisation) and subsequently their area of employment after graduation.

Initial VET and continuing vocational education and training need to be much more closely linked, and even dovetailed, since the importance of LLL is steadily increasing in the context of digitalisation. Skills and qualifications need to be able to adapt more quickly than in the past, and the two systems (IVET and CVET) should not remain separated but rather constitute two phases of a lifelong learning process, with the latter following smoothly on from the former. Such a concept could offer people new and competitive career perspectives, as well as making initial VET more attractive in comparison to general and higher education.

Although not articulated strongly, a first step in this direction can already be found in the new Education Vision of Turkey. It is planned to provide graduates of VET institutions with 'the chance for continuous self-development in new knowledge and skills' through various training programmes, such as certification-training schemes funded from different sources, nano-credit courses, and courses accredited jointly by industry and academia.

Developing a more systematic approach is recommended, starting with the key sectors of the economy as well as the fields which suffer the most from VET's traditional image problem.

As the analysis has shown, VET is not merely part of the solution, it has also become part of the problem. However, VET can make an important contribution to tackling the country's skills mismatch, although it cannot do this alone. Addressing such a problem requires the joint efforts of other stakeholders and a wider set of policies (e.g. proper wage mechanisms, good working conditions, mobility of people, more even distribution of employment opportunities and special development programmes).

There are still information gaps that need to be closed. The large horizontal skills mismatch that exists for graduates from the VET system must be further researched and analysed, as well as monitored more frequently. Comparison is also required with graduates from apprenticeships and from general and higher education to assess the wider extent of, and reasons behind, this problem. The current VET fields and branches should be reviewed to assess whether all of them still correspond to current and anticipated labour market needs. This should be made a top priority and close cooperation on this topic should be sought with the country's various business organisations. The valuable information gained from such an exercise could enrich Turkey's modern E-Graduate Monitoring Portal (managed by the MoNE).

Turkey should continue to foster WBL in VET. Skills supply through apprenticeships, the type of VET closest to the labour market, is still underdeveloped, especially in terms of participant numbers. Additional measures are needed to boost the supply of apprenticeships, while setting clear and realistic targets on apprenticeship numbers would help policymakers to make VET provision more balanced and effective. This could also help in making decisions on VET financing, taking into account the role of the private sector.

Analysing the real potential for apprenticeship places in Turkey is recommended, as well as reviewing if the current number and capacities of Vocational Training Centres (VTCs) are sufficient to cater for more apprentices. It should also be reviewed whether the current traineeships in initial VET constitute a competing scheme that hinders the development of apprenticeships, since companies' absorption capacities have their limits.

The existing quality challenges of traineeships in VET should be addressed immediately. Among these challenges are: the appropriate use of trainees in companies; trainees being better prepared before they enter a company; the effective integration of learning in schools and enterprises; reducing the administrative burden for companies; addressing the overloading of coordinating teachers; and establishing an adequate information and support system for trainees. Many of these issues may require a review of the existing roles and functions allocated to key players in WBL. The main actions in the recently proposed Quality Improvement Plan for traineeships in IVET in Turkey should be implemented (ETF, 2019b). Current processes for monitoring the quality of VET (e.g. self-assessment, quality audits and quality indexes of schools) do not yet fully include the WBL taking place in companies.

An expansion and redesign of the career guidance services is recommended, and a coherent national system should be developed. The Turkish career guidance services need to become more effective in order to make a real contribution to human capital development through assisting both young people and adults in their education, training and employment choices throughout the life course – especially in the light of the new challenges posed by rapid and fundamental changes in the world of work and the ambitions of Turkey to become a high-tech and high-income country.

Firstly, the current services provided by the major players (different MoNE directorates, ISKUR) need to be better aligned and coordinated. Secondly, career guidance should start at an earlier stage than it currently does. The planned moving of field selection from the 10th to the 9th grade is a step in the right direction, but it needs to be preceded by setting up complementary services that start at least in the 7th grade. Thirdly, strengthening the role of guidance in the school curriculum ('career education') prior to VET and within VET to foster the empowerment of young people is highly recommended. The planned focus within VET on the transition of VET students to higher education is understandable given the strong demand, however, it should be at least equally important for guidance services to support the transition from school to work. Fourthly, an over-emphasis on measurement instruments should be avoided and instead the focus should be on providing more opportunities to learn about and explore the world of work and different occupations before choices for VET fields or branches are made. OECD data confirm that young people's career aspirations are often high, narrow and unrealistic, and their research shows that 50% of students are interested in three sectors – health; science and engineering; and legal, social and cultural professions (OECD, 2018b). Special career guidance services should be also developed for refugees.