As mentioned in Section 2, the VET system in Georgia is very small with generally low levels of participation. According to UNESCO, VET enrolment as a percentage of upper secondary education was around 9% in 2016[7] As anyone who finished basic education can be admitted to a VET institution regardless of his/her age, comparing the share of VET students with the general education system does not seem as meaningful in Georgia as it might be in other countries.
. On the other hand, the share of young people in the 15 to 24 cohort that participated in formal VET programmes was only 4.5% in 2017 (ETF calculation). In August 2018, there was a total of 12 315 VET students; this figure includes both public and private VET providers (MoESCS, 2019 based on Education Management Information System (EMIS) data). Indeed, the annual number of total VET students has varied between 10 000 and 15 000 over the last decade (Table 12). This includes both initial VET students (levels 1–3) and secondary VET students (levels 4–5) in all types of VET providers. Annual VET enrolments even decreased in 2018 and 2019, due to the gradual replacement of subject-based programmes (lasting 9 months) with modular programmes (lasting 1.5 years) in VET institutions.

Table 12. VET enrolment by calendar year (1 January–31 December)

VET provider	Gender	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018
Private	Male	1 466	2 376	1 949	1 960	1 866	1 879	1 991
Private	Female	2 871	3 695	2 874	2 560	2 754	2 816	2 633
Public	Male	3 630	7 398	5 953	6 412	6 757	6 612	4 480
Public	Female	2 015	5 126	4 245	4 771	5 066	4 923	3 417
Total enrolments		9 982	18 595	15 021	15 703	16 443	16 230	12 521
% in public VET		57%	67%	68%	71%	72%	71%	63%

Source: EMIS database. All VET enrolments covering both public and private VET schools between 2012 and 2018.

The small size of the VET system can be a problem of 'access' or 'low participation', i.e. the classic 'chicken and egg' problem: the number of VET students may be small because of the limited VET offering, or the limited VET offering may be due to a lack of interest in participating in VET. What is clear is that the small size and low level of participation prevents VET from making any sizeable impact on the Georgian economy. Thus, the issue of quantity is as important as the issue of quality in VET provision in Georgia. Within this context, it would be useful to analyse the number of VET applicants over the years, which is reported as increasing. The gap between enrolled students and applicants who could have been enrolled should be analysed. Increasing access to and participation in VET always starts with expanding the existing VET offering, i.e. using existing VET institutions to their full capacity, allocating more places in existing schools and/or creating new VET institutions.

One specificity of the VET system in Georgia is that there is no age or education limit for attending VET schools. As a minimum, anyone who has completed lower secondary education can apply to a VET school, while anyone who has completed upper secondary education can apply to a VET community college. So VET students might come from different age groups and education levels. This feature practically abolishes the difference between IVET and CVET – a 35-year-old upper secondary graduate with work experience can be on the same course as a 15-year-old who just finished lower secondary education. Analysing the ages of VET students enrolled between 2015 and 2019 (all public and private enrolments together), the majority of VET students (55.4%) were indeed between the ages of 19 and 29 (Table 13). Those above the age of 30 represent almost one-fifth of total students (19.8%), while one-quarter of all students (24.8%) were aged between 15 and 18.

Table 13. Numbers and shares of VET enrolments by age group – total, public and private from 2015 to 2019*

VET enrolments	15–18	19–24	25–29	30–49	50+	All ages total
Public total N	9 310	18 189	6 763	9 113	1 462	44 837
Public total %	20.2%	40%	15.4%	21.1%	3.3%	100%
Private total N	7 058	10 019	2 013	2 333	159	21 582
Private total %	32.7%	46.4%	9.3%	10.8%	0.8%	100%
Total both N	16 368	28 208	8 776	11 446	1 621	66 419
Total both %	24.8%	42.2%	13.2%	17.4%	2.4%	100%

Source: EMIS database. All VET enrolments covering both public and private VET schools between 2015 and 2019. *There are two enrolments per year in public VET institutions and the 2019 numbers include only the spring enrolment.

Interestingly, public VET schools have fewer students in the 15 to 18 age group (20% of their students) compared to almost 33% of students in this age group in private VET colleges (Table 13). Moreover, those above the age of 30 represent 24.4% of public VET students in contrast to 11.6% of private VET students. Indeed, from the perspective of lifelong learning, almost 40% of students in public VET schools are adults (aged 25+), in contrast to 20% in private VET schools. On the other hand, almost 80% of students in private VET schools are within the youth age group (15–24) compared to 60% in public VET schools. Although this system ensures greater flexibility and access for young adults who wish to enter VET, it may create complications in training provision and learning for a diverse clientele, considering the specific needs of the 15 to 18 age group.

VET enrolment by prior education level also proves the diversity of students enrolling in VET institutions. Table 14 shows the prior education level of VET students at the moment of their enrolment between 2015 and 2019 (all public and private enrolments together). It can be seen that students who completed lower secondary or upper secondary education sit in the same classroom with students who have previous VET or tertiary education. Overall, 60% of all VET students had an upper education diploma when they enrolled in VET (62% in public and 57% in private VET). On the other hand, 28% of them had only completed basic education (29% in public and 27% in private VET). Female students had a higher level of education than males. It is interesting to note that 8% of VET students already had a VET education diploma before they enrolled again in VET (their percentage goes up to 14% in private VET), while almost 4% of VET students already had a tertiary education diploma before enrolling in VET.

Table 14. Numbers and shares of VET enrolments by prior education level – total, gender, public/private from 2015 to 2019*

VET enrolments	Basic education (ISCED 0-2)	Upper secondary general (ISCED 3)	Vocational education	Tertiary education (bachelor and +)
Total both N	18 356	39 072	5 117	2 311
Total both %	28.3%	60.2%	7.9%	3.6%
Male %	63.2%	47.4%	56.9%	38.3%
Female %	36.8%	52.6%	43.1%	61.7%
Public total N	13 015	27 652	2 336	1 682
Public total %	29.1%	61.9%	5.2%	3.8%
Private total N	5 341	11 420	2 781	629
Private total %	26.5%	56.6%	13.8%	3.1%

Source: EMIS database. All VET enrolments covering both public and private VET schools between 2015 and 2019. *There are two enrolments per year in public VET institutions and the 2019 numbers include only the spring enrolment.

Notes: (1) There was a category of prior education level 'not identified', which included 1 563 enrolments in total (516 males and 1 047 females). This number was excluded from the total in the calculation. (2) Tertiary education includes those with bachelor degrees, master and PhD degrees.

Another peculiarity of the system is the non-negligible role of the private sector in VET provision. VET in Georgia is provided by both public and private VET colleges, which numbered 39 and 65, respectively, in 2019 (MoESCS, 2019). The role of public VET provision has gradually increased over time, and public VET accounts for around two-thirds of total VET students (Table 12)[8] For example, all VET providers in medical and para-medical professions (except physicians) are private, and students have to pay for this education. This might be linked to the selection of vocations that are more attractive to students and will return higher profits in the private VET sector.
. While VET education is free in public schools, students have to pay for VET education in private colleges. Thus, private VET provision is not affordable for students from poorer backgrounds, and not available outside bigger urban centres. This already limits the financial accessibility of VET for people coming from poorer backgrounds.

As only public colleges have been eligible to get state funding so far, most private VET schools concentrate on generating profit from their expensive investment in VET education. Linked to this, many of them remain in two big cities where more people can afford to pay school fees. This also leads to limited geographical access for applicants in the regions and rural areas. The geographical distribution of public VET schools is improving, but is not large enough yet in the regions to fully compensate for the territorial limitation.

An analysis of VET enrolments by region between 2015 and 2019 (all public and private enrolments together) shows that 45% of all VET students are hosted in the city of Tbilisi (Table 15). In private VET institutions, the share of Tbilisi goes up to 63% of total enrolments compared to 36% in public VET institutions. The second region with the highest VET enrolment is Adjara (Batumi in particular) with 19% of total enrolments (22% in private VET and 17% in public VET). Overall, Tbilisi and Batumi together host two-thirds of all VET students. The uneven distribution of VET providers, lack of diverse facilities and courses in the regions are further aggravated by weak coordination and collaboration between the public and private VET schools in the same locality.

Table 15. Numbers and shares of VET enrolments by region – total, public and private from 2015 to 2019*

VET enrolments in the regions	PUBLIC		PRIVATE		TOTAL
	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%
Adjara	7 700	17.2%	4 762	22.1%	12 462	18.8%
Guria	1 864	4.2%	-	-	1 864	2.8%
Tbilisi	16 287	36.3%	13 499	62.5%	29 786	44.8%
Imereti	4 938	11.0%	1 451	6.8%	6 389	9.6%
Kakheti	3 774	8.4%	96	0.4%	3 870	5.8%
Mtskheta-Mtianeti	416	0.9%	-	-	416	0.6%
Racha-Lechkhumi/Kvemo Svaneti	201	0.4%	-	-	201	0.3%
Samegrelo Zemo Svaneti	3 879	8.7%	660	3.1%	4 539	6.8%
Samtskhe-Javakheti	2 130	4.8%	86	0.4%	2 216	3.3%
Kvemo Kartli	1 399	3.1%	775	3.6%	2 174	3.3%
Shida Kartli	2 249	5.0%	253	1.2%	2 502	3.8%
Total	44 837	100%	21 582	100%	66 419	100%

Source: EMIS database. All VET enrolments covering both public and private VET schools between 2015 and 2019. *The 2019 numbers include only the spring enrolment.

In addition to the financial and geographical barriers in VET education, there might be an academic barrier too. If a person wants to enrol in a free public VET school, they have to pass a unified VET admission exam, which was introduced in 2013. This is considered a merit-based financing system as all students who successfully pass the exam (for levels 1–3) get full coverage of tuition fees at public VET institutions. Due to the academic success required to pass this exam and no upper limit on age or education for studying in VET colleges, however, academically successful students tend to be more likely to pass the exam. This is probably an unintended consequence – the exam might be acting as a strong filter and deterrent for weaker and poorer students, leading to the selection of better-performing individuals (known as 'creaming') for the subsidised VET education. Up to this year, successful students who passed the entry exam and got the voucher were not allowed to choose between public and private VET providers.

Weaker students often come from poorer backgrounds and cannot afford to pay. This becomes a vicious cycle, leading to the exclusion of more vulnerable groups from (subsidised) public VET education. To address this issue, the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport initiated the 'inclusive VET scheme' in which alternative procedures exist for the acceptance of people with disabilities and special educational needs, while ethnic minorities can take tests in their native language. Indeed, 10% of places have been allocated to disadvantaged groups in public VET schools since 2015. For example, an analysis of VET enrolments by disadvantaged group shows that a total of 842 disabled persons and 1 095 IDPs were enrolled between 2015 and 2019 (all public and private VET enrolments together). Together, they accounted for 1 937 places or 2.9% of all VET enrolments (EMIS database). This policy is going in the right direction, but the number of beneficiaries of this scheme is still low. Furthermore, this does not solve the problem of academically weak students who generally come from poorer and/or rural households. These people leave the education system without any vocational skills, and possibly become NEET. Providing an alternative option for less successful students aged between 15 and 19 therefore seems imperative.

Last but not least, VET provision is fragmented across different education levels (subject to different governance mechanisms between VET and higher education departments) and public versus private authorities. Table 16 shows the different levels of VET education available in Georgia and the number of students at each level. As outlined already, most of the VET community colleges are in the private sector, while the public sector focuses on multi-purpose VET schools. In principle, this ensures greater flexibility in the VET system and better access to VET by different types of clientele, but it also adds to the complexity, requiring a high level of knowledge and professionalism, both on the part of VET providers and VET students. Moreover, management of the VET system at school level becomes even more complex, with no economies of scale impact due to the small size of VET institutions.

Table 16. VET students by VET provider type, 2018 and 2019

VET provider type	August 2018			August 2019
	Public	Private	All	Public	Private	All
VET schools	5 697	788	6 585	4 954	555	5 509
VET colleges	787	3 091	3 878	654	2 526	3 180
Higher education with VET	1 277	423	1 700	1 624	323	1 947
Upper secondary with VET	-	252	252	19	217	236
Total VET	7 761	4 554	12 415	7 251	3 621	10 872

Source: Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport, 2019, based on the EMIS database.

Note: The VET academic year runs from 1 September to 31 August in Georgia, and there are two enrolments per year in public VET institutions.

Diverse institutions, diverse VET offerings and diverse students also complicate the teaching and learning process from the VET trainers' and learners' point of view. For example, VET providers may have learners ranging in age from 15 to 70 years, prior education levels from primary to tertiary, and learners with special needs in the same class (MoESCS, 2019). Navigating this complex system might be relatively easier for the better-off and relatively higher-educated learners in the big cities, but navigation will not be easy for more vulnerable groups, e.g. students coming from poorer and/or rural households or students with special needs. Complex VET systems may therefore create serious information barriers, especially for more vulnerable groups. Those groups would require significantly more counselling and guidance in making the right educational and occupational choices, and finding the best type of VET education available.

As a result of these various factors, disparities in access and low participation in VET have been key features of the VET system in Georgia in the post-Soviet period. The striking imbalance between participation in general and vocational education (in favour of the former) is not only due to the limited physical VET infrastructure, but also due to the lack of respect for VET and blue-collar work in general, the lack of progression routes and the image of VET as a 'dead end' (until 2019). Limited participation in VET and lifelong learning is also visible among adults: only 1% of those aged between 25 and 64 received some kind of training in 2018 (Geostat, 2018). Although almost 40% of VET students in public institutions are adults (Table 13), the overall VET numbers are so small that it does not make any visible impact at national level. Interestingly, according to the tracer studies conducted by the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport in 2016 and 2017 (MoESCS, 2019), the absolute majority of VET graduates are satisfied with their VET educational institution (93%) and chosen profession (82%).

Despite its small size, the VET system also faces important challenges in terms of relevance to labour market needs and lack of attractiveness (MoESCS, 2019). Successful examples of VET provision exist, but the quality varies considerably from school to school, from course to course and from city to region. In particular, the differences in quality are more nuanced between initial VET (levels 1–3) and secondary VET (levels 4–5), i.e. between VET schools and VET colleges. The quality of training may also vary between programmes with dual education or workplace-based training and programmes with school-based training. As a result, many still consider VET a second choice vis-à-vis academic pathways leading to higher education. The 'stigma' of VET schools is also exacerbated where there is poor infrastructure and poor quality of teaching.

Some labour market trends also confirm the varying quality of VET provision. In some sectors, employers do not have a preference for hiring VET graduates over graduates with a general (medium level of) education. Indeed, it is quite common in Georgia to work in a job different to one's education field, particularly in vocational occupations. A tracer study of public VET graduates conducted by the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport indicated that 38% of VET graduates worked in their field of education in 2016 and 42% worked in their own field in 2017 (MoESCS, 2017). According to a labour demand survey conducted in the tourism sector in 2017, only 17% of all tourism workers were VET (tourism) graduates, while 47% had higher education and 36% had secondary general education (MoESD, 2018b). The VET graduates also reported lack of demand for their professions and qualifications, lack of experience and low salaries as the main barriers to their employment (MoESCS, 2019).

A recent survey focused on young people living in the four regions of Georgia[9] The four regions included are Kakheti, Shida Kartli, Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti and Mtskheta-Mtianeti. The youth-focused labour market assessment was done based on surveys and interviews with young people, employers and non-formal education providers in 2018 (SAVE-DEPA, 2018).
concluded that employers in those regions are primarily looking for people with low to medium levels of education (SAVE-DEPA, 2018). They have particular difficulties in finding the following specialists: electrical and electronics repair staff, computer specialists, plumbers, carpenters, catering and hotel management specialists, engineers, mechanics, veterinarians, industrial electricians, machinists, chemical and food technologists, civil technicians and welders. However, only 15% of youth respondents residing in the targeted regions had VET education and they mainly specialised in pharmacy, information technology, nursing and construction work. In other words, there is a discrepancy between the qualification levels of the graduates and the fields demanded in the regional labour markets (SAVE-DEPA, 2018).

The same survey found that, while technical competence is of paramount importance to employers who are making hiring decisions, future employees also need to have certain transversal skills (SAVE-DEPA, 2018). When assessing young staff members and job applicants, company representatives noted that they usually lack a sense of responsibility, punctuality, discipline and motivation. In terms of interpersonal transversal skills, the employers demand communication, teamwork, leadership and problem-solving skills, which young people often lack. Based on their own self-assessment, the young people reported that these were the kind of skills that they were least proficient in; this also applied to VET graduates (SAVE-DEPA, 2018). Key competences and soft skills are therefore as important as technical skills, and are often reported as lacking.

The results of another youth transition survey conducted via face-to-face interviews with 2 000 young people provide detailed and statistically reliable information on youth transition by education level (Badurashvili et al, 2019)[10] The survey was conducted by the University of Bamberg (Germany) and Tbilisi State University between October and December 2016 with a nationally representative sample selected using multistage cluster sampling and stratification. After approaching 11 835 households in all regions throughout Georgia, 2 000 standardised face-to-face interviews were conducted with young people aged 18 to 35 who had left the education system during the previous 10 years. This gives an individual-level response rate of 86.0%, with a high confidence level (see Badurashvili et al, 2019).
. As seen in Table 17 below, almost half of young people found their first job within six months of graduating, although there is a variance of between five and nine percentage points between the different education levels. Interestingly, the worst performers in this period were the graduates of lower secondary education and IVET (levels 1–3). The secondary VET graduates (levels 4–5) were more successful than initial VET graduates in all periods after graduation. The differences of performance decrease in time after graduation, but in general the most successful job entries are made by graduates with tertiary education and secondary VET. Interestingly, upper secondary graduates got slightly better positions than VET graduates three years after graduation (Badurashvili et al, 2019).

Table 17. Share of young people aged 18–35 finding their first job within a specific number of months of leaving education, by gender and education

	Finding first job within a specific number of months of leaving education
By gender	6 mths	12 mths	24 mths	36 mths	60 mths
Male (%)	52	61	72	79	87
Female (%)	41	49	61	68	78
By education level	6 mths	12 mths	24 mths	36 mths	60 mths
Lower secondary (%)	41	47	53	62	73
Upper secondary (%)	43	50	62	71	80
IVET (%)	38	47	57	64	75
Secondary VET (%)	47	52	64	69	74
Tertiary (BA) (%)	49	58	71	79	87
Higher tertiary (MA/PhD) %	56	67	73	76	82

Source: Badurashvili et al, 2019. Adapted from Table 3.4 on p. 31.

Another issue highlighted by the survey is the persistent difference between the performance of initial VET and secondary VET graduates, with the latter doing better at all times after graduation. Moreover, VET graduates with dual education or workplace-based training are more successful than VET graduates with school-based training, but the success rate is higher for secondary VET compared to initial VET (Badurashvili et al, 2019). Finally, almost one-fourth of lower secondary, initial VET and secondary VET graduates are still without their first work experience after five years (Table 17). Even if graduates find jobs quickly, this does not automatically guarantee a higher-quality job. The results of the survey show that the best chances of finding formal sector employment is found among tertiary graduates (81%), followed by (secondary) VET graduates (70%) (Badurashvili et al, 2019). In conclusion, secondary VET graduates are more likely to be active and employed and less likely to be unemployed, compared to those with only medium general education.

VET does not provide firm protection against being NEET either. As seen in Table 18 below, the highest probability of being NEET is among VET graduates (almost half of them), while the lowest probability of being NEET is among those with lower secondary or less. The next education group susceptible to being NEET is higher education graduates (almost 40%), followed by graduates of upper secondary education (almost 32%). These results by education group remain similar by gender, despite the fact that more women than men are NEET. This confirms that level of education does not always relate to NEET rate and VET education does not save young people from being NEET. At the same time, young people with a low level of education in rural areas are forced to take jobs in subsistence agriculture (despite not wanting to do so), thus they are not necessarily NEET (ETF, 2018).

Table 18. Percentage of NEET (aged 15–24) by education level, 2018

Education level	Total	Male	Female
Lower secondary and below	14.4	12.2	16.9
Upper secondary education	31.5	29.6	34.0
VET education (below tertiary)	49.6	33.1	64.2
Higher education	39.3	32.5	43.2
Total	26.9	23.2	31.0

Source: Geostat, 2018 (labour force survey data).

These varying degrees of success in the labour market achieved by VET graduates signal varying quality and relevance of VET provision. VET quality depends on many factors, such as curricula, teaching and learning materials, learning processes, infrastructure (ranging from the workshops used for traditional trades to building operations, e.g. energy, heating, AC) and custodial services (e.g. cleaning, maintenance) (MoESCS, 2019). Anecdotal evidence suggests that some VET providers are not always up to standard in these respects.

Learning and training environment requirements are defined in the authorisation standards set out by the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport, which are compulsory for all education establishments carrying out educational activities. However, only minimum technical standards are set and checked by experts. For example, according to the EBRD's 2018 project fiche, Nursing skills in Georgia: Development of a local-language nursing textbook and test item bank, the nursing education curriculum was, until very recently, outdated. Following the recent modernisation of curricula, however, VET colleges are lacking updated Georgian-language nursing textbooks and a test item bank aligned to the new curriculum. The aim of the current EBRD project is to produce these items.

Another sign of quality is the relatively high dropout rate in VET in Georgia. In 2018, the total dropout rate was 27% (21% in private schools and 30% in public schools), while the completion rate of VET programmes was 68% (75% in private VET schools and 66% in public VET schools) (MoESCS, 2019). The ministry reports the following reasons for dropout: military service (for men); study fees in private VET; studying in another school; leaving for work; family circumstances; health; and change of residence. VET institutions are encouraged to develop partnerships with companies to improve technical workshops and training, but such partnerships do not always end in success. In principle, a minimum component of 40% practical training is foreseen in all VET programmes, but the distinction between school-based and work-based practical training is somewhat blurred (ETF, 2016). Although there is a gradual increase in practical training in VET programmes (with the help of donor projects such as those funded by GIZ), the actual share of work-based learning remains low.

Another aspect is the quality and status of VET teachers. According to the numbers provided by the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport (2019), there were 3 260 VET teachers in Georgia as of August 2019. The student-teacher ratio in secondary VET is relatively healthy – 20.2 in the 2017/18 academic year. However, around 72% of VET teachers were over the age of 40, with almost half of them over 50 years of age (no upper age limit). Two-thirds of teachers were female. Until recently, VET teachers were not required to have pedagogical training. They also earn low salaries and pensions, although salaries were just increased by 30% at the time of writing this report. As explained earlier, their job status is fragile since they work only as employees of the school where they are hired by the school principal, thus part-time work is quite common.

Last but not least, it is important to keep in mind the budget allocation for VET provision. Compared to the country's ambitions, average spending on education, and in particular on VET, seems low in Georgia by international standards. Given the average of 5% of GDP spent on education in OECD countries, Georgia's total education expenditure as a share of GDP has oscillated between 2% and 3% since the early 2000s. And VET expenditure has never exceeded 3 to 4% of the public education budget (Table 19). Despite some increases in VET spending in the last decade, it is still quite low considering the low starting base. Further increases in the budget for VET seem to be imperative given the ambitious plans of the state to increase the VET school network and the number of VET students, including those in the regions, with student dormitory facilities and transport services for students from rural areas.

Table 19. Public expenditure on education and share of VET expenditure

	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018
Education expenditure as % of GDP	3.2	3.4	3.8	3.8	3.1
Education expenditure as % of public expenditure	10.6	11.1	12.2	12.7	12.7
VET expenditure (% of total public education expenditure)	3.7	2.7	2.7	3.1	2.8

Source: Geostat, 2019. Calculations are based on Ministry of Finance and Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport data.

As reported in detail in the national Torino Process report (MoESCS, 2019), Georgia took several measures to involve the private sector in both the design and delivery of VET. For example, the National VET Council, which involves the social partners and civil society, was created to design VET policy; thematic working groups discuss and recommend VET policies; the sector skills councils review VET qualifications; and different models of public-private partnership are foreseen for VET delivery. A new national qualifications framework was adopted in 2019. However, how all these structures and mechanisms work in practice is another aspect of the analysis. The concept of work-based learning and dual education has gained a lot of attention and has been on the policy agenda during the last decade as well. It is expected that all these mechanisms will lead to more relevant VET programmes.

As a result, a minimum component of 40% practical training is foreseen in all VET programmes on principle, with some courses demanding higher percentages in line with the applicable occupational standard. These changes have resulted in an increased share of practical training, both at school and in work settings, but the total amount of provision available is still considered inadequate, while the distinction between school-based and work-based practical training is somewhat blurred (ETF, 2016). The VET curriculum includes work experience, work-based or company training, school-based practical training and external project modules, implying work-based training contexts for close to a quarter of the curriculum after the revisions (ETF, 2016).

Some success has been achieved in terms of raising the awareness of the private sector and engaging it in dual education. Since 2018, the number of companies involved in dual education increased from 11 to 51 and 29 brand new programmes were created in partnership with the private sector in 2019 (MoESCS, 2019). VET projects with a dual or work-based learning component that were funded and/or implemented by donors were essential in achieving this success. With the implementation of the new VET law, a new adult education system will also be developed in cooperation with the private sector, since companies can now get authorisation (in cooperation with the VET school or independently) from the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport to provide short-term training courses and their graduates can get a state-recognised certificate. This is of course only the legal aspect. It remains to be seen whether this legal permission clause will motivate a high number of companies to provide VET courses. The result will depend on the profitability of such actions for the companies.

Although modular VET programmes are classified and discussed under 'accessible VET' in the next section, the substantial changes and improvements made to VET curricula must be mentioned here also in relation to relevance. Georgia has gradually replaced subject-based programmes with modular programmes, which has also improved the relevance of VET provision to the labour market. Subject-based programmes had a duration of nine months, but with the full implementation of modular programmes in 2019, the minimum duration of VET programmes increased to a year and a half. Moreover, entrepreneurial learning has been an obligatory module in VET since 2015. This includes obligatory and optional learning materials such as a student book on entrepreneurship and a teacher's handbook on the same subject. Given the limited availability of wage employment, this could facilitate the self-employment of graduates. In 2016, the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport created a network of industrial innovation laboratories (known as FabLab) in 14 vocational colleges, where students can learn digital skills and create innovative products (MoESCS, 2019).

Increasing existing VET provision is essential for accessibility, in particular in Georgia's regions. To this end, public investment has been made to increase the geographical coverage of VET institutions by establishing new colleges and branches, developing student dormitories, rehabilitating college buildings, adapting school infrastructure for disabled students, and adapting and developing learning materials for people with disabilities or special educational needs (MoESCS, 2019). The Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport continued the expansion of its public VET provision network by opening new branches in existing VET schools or creating new schools in 65 municipalities. In the 2019 plan, 27 municipalities are covered with the creation of 6 new VET schools. In addition, there has been an upward trend in the financial resources allocated for education and VET (MoESCS, 2019).

The diversification of VET programmes and the inclusion of short-cycle training programmes is another important policy response in VET provision. Since 2019, all VET institutions have been working with a modular education system. The modular programmes are based on educational and occupational standards that were developed in cooperation with employers. The main advantages of modular VET programmes are not only compliance with labour market requirements, but also a greater focus on learning outcomes, a practical component, and modern approaches to teaching and assessment. In this way, each student can choose their individualised learning pathway based on their own needs and have more freedom in terms of choosing and planning their own education (MoESCS, 2019). Obviously, this will increase flexibility and hence access to VET, and facilitate further VET studies.

This flexibility in planning and implementing the educational process will be further complemented by the opportunity for VET providers to implement short-cycle training and retraining programmes, after which the state awards certificates. According to the new VET law, educational institutions will be able to add short-term programmes to their training and/or retraining offering without an extra quality assurance process if they already run authorised VET programmes (MoESCS, 2019). Establishing a system of validating non-formal and informal learning will also nicely complement the modular programmes, giving individuals more flexibility and options to continue their lifelong training. Overall, the system is expected to better support the lifelong learning of individuals and increase adult education in Georgia.

Another very important change with the new VET law is the possibility of integrating VET into upper secondary education. The preparatory work for this integration is still ongoing, so a clear implementation plan is not available yet on the question of 'how'. In principle, this option has great potential to increase VET enrolment considerably in Georgia, mainly by eliminating enrolment competition between VET and upper secondary education for the 15 to 18 age group. In the past, the diplomas awarded to VET graduates were not considered equivalent to upper secondary education diplomas, but the new 'integrated' schools can now award diplomas that combine both VET and upper secondary education.

Last but not least, the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport has implemented many important initiatives since 2016 to make VET more accessible and inclusive for special vulnerable groups and made institutional adaptations, including learning equipment and materials. As already mentioned, public VET providers allocate at least 10% of places in each enrolment round for applicants with special needs and/or disabilities, who require extended support during their education (MoESCS, 2019). The representatives of ethnic minorities can take the VET admission exam in their own language (Azeri, Armenian or Russian), after which they can enrol in VET and begin to learn the Georgian language in their vocational education studies. Transportation expenses are covered for IDP students to support their access to VET (MoESCS, 2019). This is a successful initiative, although the number of beneficiaries is very low.

All of the policy responses explained above under the headings of 'relevant' and 'accessible' VET will eventually contribute to the increased attractiveness of VET in the medium to longer term. For example, modular courses will give individual learners (both young and adult) more freedom in organising their education; dual education and work-based learning will increase the relevance of VET and attract more students to it; short-cycle programmes will offer more options for working adults. Integrating VET into upper secondary education will definitely attract more young people aged 15 to 18 into the VET system in order to get both a vocation and an upper secondary education diploma. Increasing the quality of teaching and learning is another step. The Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport revised the quality assurance framework and the VET authorisation standards in 2019. It also plans to invest more in infrastructure and the learning environment, and to improve the quality and status of VET teachers (MoESCS, 2019).

The country has implemented successive changes to professionalise and modernise the teaching workforce. This has included increasing the qualification requirements to become a teacher and introducing a merit-based career structure. Teachers are now required to pass certification examinations in pedagogical skills and subject knowledge to reach the status of senior teacher. Considering that VET curricula and teaching need to be continuously aligned with the changing skills demands of the private sector, the ministry has developed and delivered many in-service training programmes for VET teachers, e.g. on modular VET curricula and pedagogical skills. Considerable work was done to develop draft regulations on the VET teaching profession and its professional development. The training model for VET teachers and their professional development is being modified to include professional standards and an ethics code (MoESCS, 2019).

The Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport also supports the wider use of public promotion campaigns to change the image of VET from negative to positive, by emphasising the opportunities provided by VET education to students, parents and employers. The Communication Plan is only the beginning of a long process to change public attitudes towards VET, but at least seven countrywide VET award events take place annually, organised by the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport in conjunction with international donors: hackathons and Makaton, teachers' awards, ECOFactors, TVET and Makeathon (MoESCS, 2019). A National VET Award was launched in 2017 to select the VET student of the year, the VET professional of the year, the VET school of the year and the VET business partner of the year (see www.iswd.ge). All of these are intended to further improve the image and attractiveness of VET.

All the objectives (accessible, relevant and attractive VET) and policy priorities set against these objectives are highly relevant and are going in the right direction in the context of the Georgian VET system. The review of policy responses in the previous section shows a significant capacity and maturity of VET policy making in Georgia, and all these policy responses must be praised for their relevance, coherence and correctness.

As a country with a high number of international donors in the field of VET (see Section 1.3) and as outlined in the national Torino Process report (MoESCS, 2019, pp.17–19), the Georgian government has received and continues to receive considerable (if not essential) support for its reforms of the VET system. In particular, international donor support has been highly visible in designing all the VET policy responses summarised in the previous section, as well as in piloting examples of work-based learning programmes and developing standards. This has stimulated a lot of learning and debate on different VET policy options among policy makers.

Given the maturity and richness of VET policy development and the widely available international expertise to support the Georgians, this report did not identify any obvious gap in written policy documents, but gaps might be observed in the implementation of these policy responses. It is already noted that most of these policy responses are still in the planning and/or early stages of the pilot or implementation period. Some of the implementation is supported heavily by donor projects (e.g. dual education or work-based learning). Before going into the details of policies designed to increase the quantity and quality of VET, three general observations have to be made on transversal policy issues in the VET system. These issues are all linked to the implementation of the policy responses.

The first is the feasibility and sustainability of the implementation of the policy responses. Considering the ambitious nature of the reforms, the high number of priorities, and sometimes conflicting nature of the objectives, their implementation will not be easy. The complexity of the VET system will require a high degree of professionalism and efficiency from all actors in all regions, which will be extremely challenging in practice. Given the high number of policy priorities, it must be remembered that even the best policy on paper could fail badly on the ground if its implementation modality is not planned properly and the institutions and staff are not adequately prepared. The design of the implementation modalities and operational procedures or guidelines are therefore of the utmost importance to the success of implementation. The implementation process should be planned thoroughly and designed from the viewpoints of VET providers and end users, rather than from the policy makers' perspective.

The second is the continuing focus on the central institutions and policy makers, rather than focusing more on service providers and end users. At this stage of the reform process, and with the longstanding support of the donor community, the time has come to focus on policy implementation issues rather than policy development. Thus, action has to be taken on the ground in the regions, with direct support given to VET providers and end users in regions and/or sectors. Various signals indicate a huge gap between the capacities of central and local institutions in Georgia, the latter being much weaker. Thus, despite the right policy responses being designed at national level, their implementation plans are not well enough developed to deal with local conditions in the regions and rural communities. Therefore, there needs to be a shift in perspective from the policy makers to the VET end users and VET service providers, particularly in the regions. The needs and perspectives of the VET providers and VET end users have to be prioritised.

The third is the limited financial and human resources available within the regions. Also linked to the first two issues, budget and staffing are key to the efficient implementation of policies. Obviously, donor support has been less visible in the regions and helped only a handful of VET providers to improve local capacity on the ground. If implementation is to be successful, all local actors in the regions must be supported substantially, e.g. VET providers, VET students, local authorities, local companies, local support facilities and local employment services. Increasing the availability and diversity of VET provision and a highly sophisticated system will require extra financial and human resources, which is highly unlikely to be paid for by the private sector or students in the regions. Therefore, politicians seriously need to consider increasing the education budget and the allocation for VET resources going to the regions and rural areas. Donor funding could be better reflected and included in the education and VET budgets, while spending inefficiencies could be reduced in the existing budget. This is imperative if the country wants to improve both the quantity and quality of VET provision in the regions.